Socio-ecological drivers and community perceptions of human–wildlife conflict in the buffer zone of bogani nani wartabone national park: evidence from Tulabolo Village, Indonesia

Abstract

Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in protected-area buffer zones poses significant challenges to biodiversity conservation and rural livelihood sustainability. This study investigates the socio-ecological drivers, conflict patterns, perceived impacts, and mitigation responses in Tulabolo Village, located adjacent to Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park, Indonesia. A cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 30 agricultural households using structured questionnaires to capture socio-demographic characteristics, conflict experiences, economic and psychological impacts, and participation in mitigation initiatives. Descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation analyses were employed, supported by secondary demographic and land-use data. The results indicate that macaques are the predominant conflict species (96.7%), with half of the respondents reporting very frequent crop-raiding incidents. Substantial economic losses were identified, including crop failure (66.7%), plant damage (60%), and livestock loss (40%). Psychological impacts were also pronounced, particularly fear (63.3%) and anxiety (56.7%). Social responses varied, ranging from increased retaliatory intentions toward wildlife to declining support for conservation initiatives. Among mitigation measures, electric fencing was perceived as the most effective strategy (71.4%), although adoption remained limited due to financial and technical constraints. Notably, only 10% of community members actively participated in mitigation programs despite widespread exposure to conflict. These findings underscore the need for integrated, community-based conflict management strategies that address both ecological and socio-economic dimensions. Strengthening local capacity, improving access to mitigation resources, and promoting inclusive governance are essential for fostering sustainable coexistence in protected-area buffer zones.